mint/documents/course/sadda_pan_goun.md

Introduction to Thematic Units(Vākya & Vākyajotaka)

Introduction

There are two kinds of relations usually defined to analyze given Pali text, namely, word-to-word relations and sentence-to-sentence ones. The former is used to get the syntactic sense of a sentence and has been discussed in Basic / Advanced Relational Grammar. The latter is used to get the accurate picture of logical relations among sentences of a paragraph, a chapter or even a volume. This topic is an introduction to sentence-to-sentence relations.

Thematic Unit (Vākya)

The Pali term vākya literally means "a sentence", i.e., a self-contained set of words, in which syntactic word-to-word relations can be properly defined without going out of the set. However, it means here an independent unit of content or subject matter, hence the term thematic unit. The smallest thematic unit is a sentence and each of them may combine to form larger ones --- with their extents ranging from two or more sentences up to a whole paragraph or chapter, or even a whole volume.

Thematic Markers (*Vākyajotaka*s)

Many thematic units are marked by certain indeclinables, namely, hi, ca, or pana. They are usually placed immediately after the initial words of their respective sentences. In theory, they are similar to English conjunctions --- they are said to illuminate the thematic relations among thematic units. In practice, however, each of them is used to indicate almost all relations possible; it is almost impossible to rely on them when they are so overloaded.

The actual process is rather the reverse. A thematic marker is only a signal that indicates the necessity to analyze the thematic relation of its HOST unit to the PREVIOUS one. After the analysis has been finished and the relation found out, that relation is used to make a reasonable translation of the marker itself.

Essential Content (Piṇḍattha)

The term essential content is used in contrast with the literal content.

For example, a simple sentence counting the Triple Gems as Buddha, Dhamma and Saṅgha is literally different from a whole chapter explaining them in detail one by one; but they are essentially the same in content. Why? Because the subject matter is the same, i.e., the Triple Gems.

The essential content of a thematic unit is related to that of its previous or following one in one of following three ways:

• a. Identity
• b. Cause / effect (premise / conclusion)
• c. ordinary connection.

Types of Thematic Units

The type of a given thematic unit is defined in reference to its preceding and following ones. For instance, if a unit is an elaboration of the previous one but serves as one of partial content to the following one, it is termed as the unit of both elaboration and partial content. Accordingly, types of thematic units are usually given in pairs; in each pair, each member has its type defined in reference to another.

Depending on the relation of their essential contents, they are divided into three classes.

• A. Units of Identical Contents

  1. Unit of Summarized Content followed by Unit of Elaborated Content
  2. Unit of Elaborated Content followed by Unit of Summarized Content (the pair above reversed)
  3. Unit of Vague Content followed by Unit of Illuminated Content
  4. Unit of Doubtful Content followed by Unit of Confirming Content
  5. Unit of Main Content followed by Unit of Concluding Content

• B. Units of Cause and Effect

  1. Unit of Premise (Cause) followed by Unit of Conclusion (Effect)
  2. Unit of Conclusion (Effect) followed by Unit of Premise (Cause) (the pair above reversed)
  3. Unit of Confirmable Content followed by Unit of Convincing Implication
  4. Unit of Disputable Content followed by Unit of Destructive Implication

• C. Units of Ordinary Connection

  1. Unit of Partial Content followed by Unit of Continued Supplement
  2. Unit of Partial Content followed by Unit of Resumed Supplement
  3. Unit of General Content followed by Unit of Particular Content
  4. Unit of Particular Content followed by Unit of General Content (the pair above reversed)
  5. Unit of Affirmative Content followed by Unit of Negative Content
  6. Unit of Negative Content followed by Unit of Affirmative Content (the pair above reversed)
  7. Unit of Disapproved Content followed by Unit of Commended Content
  8. Unit of Commended Content followed by Unit of Disapproved Content (the pair above reversed)
  9. Unit of Previous Theme followed by Unit of Next Theme

Usage of Thematic Markers

1. All three markers, i.e., hi, ca, pana, can be placed in the respective subsequent units of all pairs except the last three to illuminate the relation of the host unit to the previous one.
2. Only pana can be used with the subsequent units of the last three, that is, with those of the 16th, 17th, and 18th.

Examples and Explanations of Thematic Units

Note: In each example below, a potential thematic marker is marked as (T.M) and placed as the second word in the subsequent unit. And its translation is also given.

1. Unit of Summarized Content followed by Unit of Elaborated Content

E.g.

1. • A. The couple lived at Sarnath.

   • B. Sarnath (T.M) is a small village near Benares, a town in the Northeastern part of India. It was known as Migadāya at the time of the Buddha. It was there that the Buddha preached Dhammacakkapavattana Sutta, etc., etc.

     (T.M) = " to elaborate OR to give details"

2. The following unit B is a Unit of Elaboration with reference to A, for it is an elaboration of the word Sarnath mentioned in A. Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Summarized Content with reference to B.

3. • A. The whole family is busy.

   • B. Father (T.M) is mowing the lawn. Mother is preparing the dinner. The son is sweeping the floor. The daughter is cleaning the cupboard.

     (T.M) = the same as above

4. The following unit B is a Unit of Elaboration with reference to A, for it is an elaboration of the working of the family mentioned in A.

   Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Summarized Content with reference to B.

2. Unit of Elaborated Content followed by Unit of Summarized Content

E.g.

• A. The members of our group are John (a soldier), Robert (a programmer), Mary (a housewife) . . . George (a student).

• B. We (T.M) have altogether 15 members of various professions and pursuits.

  (T.M) = " to sum up, to summarize"

• The following unit B is a Unit of Summarized Content with reference to A, for it is a summary of the description, given in A, of group members.

  Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Elaborated Content with reference to B.

3. Unit of Vague Content followed by Unit of Illuminated Content

3. 笼统-具体关系

E.g. 例如：

• A. The couple came to town.这对夫妇进城了
• B. Just (T.M) as birds come to a tree full of fruits for a good meal, they moved to town hoping for an easy and happy life.

• 就(T. M)像鸟儿为了享用美味而来到一棵挂满果实的树一样，他们向往着轻松快乐的生活而搬到城里。

  (T.M) = " to explain OR to make lucid" (T. M)=“解释或使清楚”

• The following unit B is a Unit of Illuminated Content with reference to A, for it is an explanation of how that couple moved to town.

• 以下单元B是参照A的照明内容单元，因为它解释了这对夫妇是如何搬到镇上的

  Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Vague Content with reference to B.

  因此，A被称为参照B的模糊内容单元。

  Note: a simply exhaustive account is termed a Unit of Elaborated Content whereas the one given using similes or reasoning is called a Unit of Illuminated Content.

  注：简单详尽的叙述称为详述内容的单元，而使用明喻或推理的叙述称为阐明内容的单元。

4. Unit of Doubtful Content followed by Unit of Confirming Content

4. 待定-确定关系

E.g. 例如：

1. • A. He would have passed the examination if he really wished to do so.
   • 如果他真的想通过考试，他早就通过了
   • B. The (T.M) saying goes, " When there’s a will, there’s a way."

   • B. (T. M)谚语是这样说的：“有志者事竟成.”

     (T.M) = " it is true" (T. M)=“这是真的”

   The following unit B is a Unit of Confirming Content with reference to A, for it quotes a popular proverb to confirm the prospect of passing the examination. 下面的单元B是参照A确认内容的单元，因为它引用了一句流行的谚语来确认通过考试的前景。

   Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Doubtful Content with reference to B. 因此，A被称为关于B的待定内容单元

2. • A. He really wishes to pass the examination.
   • 他真的很想通过考试。
   • B. Even (T.M) in his sleep, he is dreaming of his lessons.
   • 即使(T. M)在睡梦中，他也在梦见他的功课。
   • (The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)
   • (关系连词译文同上)

   The following unit B is a Unit of Confirming Content with reference to A, for it gives the circumstantial evidence to confirm that he really "wills" to pass the examination. 下面的单元B是关于A的内容确认单元，因为它给出了环境证据，以确认他确实“愿意”通过考试。

   Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Doubtful Content with reference to B. 因此，A被称为关于B的可疑内容单元。

5. Unit of Main Content followed by Unit of Concluding Content

5. 待总结-总结关系

This pair is similar to that of Unit of Elaborated Content followed by Unit of Summarized Content but the concluding part of a topic or chapter or even a whole book is termed Unit of Concluding Content while the rest of the topic, etc. is labeled Unit of Main Content. 此对类似于分-总关系，但一个主题或章节甚至整本书的总结部分称为总结内容单元，而主题的其余部分等被标记为待总结内容单元。

6. Unit of Premise (Cause) followed by Unit of Conclusion (Effect)

6. 条件-结论关系

E.g. 例如

1. • A. Smoke is seen on the mountain.
   • 山上有烟
   • B. Fire (T.M) is on the mountain.
   • 山上有火(T. M)

   (T.M) = " Therefore it is known that" (T. M)=“因此，我们知道”

   The following unit B is a Unit of Conclusion with reference to A, for it is the conclusion of the premise given in A, i.e., "smoke being seen" . 下面的单元B是关于A的结论单元，因为它是A中给出的条件的结论，即“看到烟”。

   Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Premise with reference to B. 因此，关于B，A称为前提单元

2. • A. A fire started to burn in the forest.
   • 森林里开始着火了
   • B. Billows (T.M) of smoke rose into the sky.
   • 滚滚浓烟(T. M)升入天空

   (T.M) = " Therefore" (T. M)=“因此”

   The following unit B is a Unit of Effect with reference to A, for it is the effect of the cause given in A, i.e., " a fire burning in the forest". 下面的单元B是关于A的效果单元，因为它是A中给出的原因的效果，即“森林中燃烧的一场火”.

   Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Cause with reference to B. 因此，A被称为关于B的原因单元

7. Unit of Conclusion (Effect) followed by Unit of Premise (Cause)

7. 结论-条件关系

E.g. 例如：

1. • A. Fire is on the mountain.
   • 山上着火了。
   • B. Smoke (T.M) is seen on the mountain.

   • 山上有烟(T. M)

     (T.M) = " It is known because" (T. M)=“这是已知的，因为”

The following unit B is a Unit of Premise with reference to A, for it is the premise of the conclusion given in A, i.e., "Fire being on the mountain" . 下面的单元B是关于A的前提单元，因为它是A中所给出的结论的前提，即“火在山上”

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Conclusion with reference to B. 因此，A称为关于B的结论单元。

1. • A. Billows of smoke rose into the sky.
   • B. A fire (T.M) started to burn in the forest. (T.M) = " Because"

The following unit B is a Unit of Cause with reference to A, for it is the cause of the effect given in A, i.e., " Smoke rising into the sky".

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Effect with reference to B.

8. Unit of Confirmable Content followed by Unit of Convincing Implication

8. 合理-得到支持关系

E.g. 例如：

• A. They said that only one-third of the committee turned up for the meeting.
• A. 他们说只有三分之一的委员出席了会议。
• B. It (T.M) would be a reflection of the fact that the majority of committee members were against the new leader.

• B. 它(T. M)或许是大多数委员会成员反对新领导人的这一事实的(实际)反应。

  (T.M) = " It would imply that OR Thus" (T. M)=“那或许暗示OR因此”

The following unit B is a Unit of Convincing Implication with reference to A, for it gives the sense which is implied provided the fact given in A is confirmed, i.e., "If the majority of committee members were absent at the meeting" .

以下单元B是关于A的一个令人信服的含意单元，因为它给出了隐含的意思，只要A中的事实得到确认，即“如果大多数委员缺席会议”

(Note that B is an indirect verification of A) (请注意，B是对A的间接证明)

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Confirmable Content with reference to B.

因此，A被称为参照B的合理单元。

Note on different opinions: 注意这里有不同观点：

• A given unit is labeled a Unit of Convincing Implication if:
• 给定的单元被标记为具有令人信服的含义的单元，条件是：
  • a. It is an effect (conclusion) of another unit, which is itself the effect (conclusion) of still another OR
  • a. 它是另一个单元的效果(结论)，(另一个单元)本身还是另一个OR的效果(结论)
  • b. It is a unit of effect (conclusion) that precedes its unit of cause (premise) —— it implies that a unit of effect (conclusion) is termed so only if it follows its respective unit of cause (premise).
  • b. 它是效果(结论)单元并位于其原因(前提)的单元之前——这是在暗示，只有当这个单元跟随其本身的原因(前提)时，它才被称为结果(结论) ---------------

9. Unit of Disputable Content followed by Unit of Destructive Implication

9. 不确定-归谬关系

E.g. 例如：

1. • A. The subject is said to be too boring for students.
   • A. 据说这门课对学生来说太枯燥了.
   • B. If (T.M) it were really so, no one would attend the lecture. But the lecture-hall is full every day.
   • B. 如果(T. M)真是这样，就没有人会去听讲座了。但是讲堂每天都座无虚席。

   (T.M) = " The blame here is" (T. M)=“这里的矛盾是”

The following unit B is a Unit of Destructive Implication with reference to A, for it gives the improbable content implied provided the fact given in A is confirmed, i.e., "If the subject is a bore" . 下面的单元B是关于A的破绽，因为它给出了不太可能的结论推导是在A中所给出的事实得到确认，即，“如果这个门课程无聊”的这一前提下。

(Note that B is an indirect negation of A) (请注意，B是A的间接否定)

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Disputable Content with reference to B. 因此，A被称为参照B的不合理单元

OR .

• A. The subject is not boring.
• A. 这们课并不枯燥。
• B. Otherwise, (T.M) there would be no one in the class.

• B. 否则，(T. M)班上就没有人了

  (The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above) (关系连词译文同上)

The following unit B is a Unit of Destructive Implication with reference to A, for it gives the improbable content implied if the fact given in A is refuted, i.e., "If the subject is boring" .

后面的单元B是关于A的破绽的单元，因为它给出了如果A中给出的事实被驳斥，即“如果主题很无聊”这一前提下能够推导出的不合理的内容。

(Note that here B is an indirect confirmation of A and that certain words meaning " otherwise", i.e., itarathā, aññathā, are typical of such units)

(请注意，此处B是对A的间接确认，并且某些意思为“否则”的词，即itarathā, *aññathā*是此类单元的典型代表)

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Disputable Content with reference to B. 因此，A被称为关于B的不确定内容单元。

10. Unit of Partial Content followed by Unit of Continued Supplement

10. 开头-补充关系

E.g. 例如：

1. • A. She goes to school everyday.
   • 她每天都去学校。
   • B. She (T.M) is a teacher at a school nearby.
   • 她(T. M)是附近一所学校的老师。 (T.M) = "to continue, moreover, in addition"

(T. M)=“此外，继续，再者”

The following unit B is a Unit of Continued Supplement with reference to A, for it is a supplement of the content given in A, i.e., by clearing the doubt whether she is a student.

后面的单元B是关于A的续补单元，因为它. 是A中给出的内容的补充，即通过澄清她是否是学生。

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Partial Content with reference to B. 因此，参照B，将A称为部分内容单元。

11. Unit of Partial Content followed by Unit of Resumed Supplement

11. 开头-呼应关系

E.g. 例如

• A. She goes to school everyday. She is a teacher at a school nearby. She has taught there for more than two years, etc. etc.
• 她每天都去学校。她是附近一所学校的老师。她在那里教书两年多了，等等。
• B. On (T.M) her way to school, she always meets a strange woman.

• 在她上学的路上，她总是遇到一个陌生的女人

  (T.M) = " to continue, to resume" (T. M)=“继续，恢复”

The following unit B is a Unit of Resumed Supplement with reference to A, for it resumes on certain content given in a distant member unit of A, i.e., "that she goes to school everyday".

下面的单元B是关于A的呼应补充的单元，因为它对A中有一段距离的单元组分中给出的某些内容进行呼应。即“她每天都去上学”。

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Partial Content with reference to B. 因此，参照B，将A称为开头内容单元。

12. Unit of General Content followed by Unit of Particular Content

12. 一般-特指关系

E.g.例如：

• A. The word house means " a building for living in, a building in general, a dwelling - place, an inn, a public house, a household, a family in line of descent, kindred, a trading establishment, etc.".
• 房屋这个词的意思是“供居住的建筑物，一般的建筑物，住处、客栈、酒馆、家庭、世系家庭、亲属、贸易机构等.“
• B. Here (T.M) it means "a public house".

• 这里(T. M)它的意思是“酒店”。

  (T.M) = "in particular, specially, especially"

  (T. M)=“特指，特定，特别”

The following unit B is a Unit of Particular Content with reference to A, for it gives the particular sense, which is contextually required, out of the possible ones given in A, i.e., that of "a public house".

下面的单元B是关于A的特定内容的单元，因为它根据上下文的实际需要给出了A中的可能的含义中的的特定意义，即“酒店”的名称。

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of General Content with reference to B.

因此，A被称为关于B的一般内容单元。

13. Unit of Particular Content followed by Unit of General Content

E.g.

• A. The word safe means here " trustworthy".

• B. It (T.M) may mean, as an adjective, " unharmed, free from danger, secure, sound, free from risk, certain, sure, reliable, trustworthy, cautious, good, fine (slang)" and as a noun, "a metal box (often set in a wall, secure against fire, thieves, etc), a ventilated box or cupboard for meat, etc".

  (T.M) = "generally, in general"

The following unit B is a Unit of General Content with reference to A, for it gives the generally possible senses of the word given in A, i.e., those of the word safe.

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Particular Content with reference to B.

14. Unit of Affirmative Content followed by Unit of Negative Content

E.g.

1. • A. Only Mary and her sister go to school.
   • B. The (T.M) rest of the family does not.

   (T.M) = "on the contrary"

The following unit B is a Unit of Negative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content contrary to that given in A, i.e., "those going to school".

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to B.

1. • A. The sentence " she did not go," means that she did not go abroad.
   • B. She (T.M) did go to school and other places nearby.

   (The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)

The following unit B is a Unit of Negative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content contrary to that given in the commented part of A, i.e., "her lack of movement".

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to B.

15. Unit of Negative Content followed by Unit of Affirmative Content

E.g.

1. • A. The elders in the family do not go to school.
   • B. Only (T.M) Mary and her sister do.

   (T.M) = " On the other hand"

The following unit B is a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content contrary to the negation given in A, i.e., "those not going to school".

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Negative Content with reference to B.

1. • A. The sentence " she did not go" does not mean she was at home.
   • B. She (T.M) did not go abroad, anyhow.

The following unit B is a Unit of Affirmative Content with reference to A, for it gives the content consistent with that of the commented unit given in A, i.e., " she did not go ".

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Negative Content with reference to B.

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Note:

• In ordinary prose, the unit having the indeclinable Na is the Unit of Negative Content and the other, the Unit of Affirmative Content.
• In a comment unit, however, a unit having content contrary to that of the commented unit is the Unit of Negative Content and the other, the Unit of Affirmative Content. ------------------------

16. Unit of Disapproved Content followed by Unit of Commended Content

E.g.

• A. He is very thin and small.

• B. He (T.M) is strong.

  (T.M) = " however, but"

The following unit B is a Unit of Commended Content with reference to A, for it is a commendation in contrast with the disapproval given in A.

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Disapproved Content with reference to B.

17. Unit of Commended Content followed by Unit of Disapproved Content

E.g.

• A. He is really honest.

• B. He (T.M) knows nothing about his business.

  (The translation of the thematic marker is the same as above)

The following unit B is a Unit of Disapproved Content with reference to A, for it is disapproval in contrast with the commendation given in A.

Accordingly, A is termed a Unit of Commended Content with reference to B.

18. Unit of Previous Theme followed by Unit of Next Theme

E.g.

• A. He has two sons, John and Bob.
• B. John is a student at Harvard. He is studying science, etc, etc.

• C. Bob (T.M) is a soldier. He is fighting in Iraq, etc, etc.

  (T.M) = " the next topic is"

The following unit C is a Unit of Next Theme with reference to B, for it carries a different theme in contrast with that given in B.

Accordingly, B is termed a Unit of Previous Theme with reference to A.

Special Types of the Pair “Previous Theme / Next Theme”

1. Unit of Question followed by Unit of Answer
2. Unit of Critical Question followed by Unit of Rejoinder
3. Unit of Critic’s Premise followed by Unit of Critic’s Conclusion
4. Unit of Exponent’s Premise followed by Unit of Exponent’s Conclusion
5. Unit of Indefinite Content followed by Unit of Definite Content
6. Unit of Standard of Comparison followed by Unit of Compared Object
7. Unit of Quoted Speech followed by Unit of Quotation Possessor

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Note:

• Each pair above except the first two can have its members reversed in position.

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